That's So Second Millennium

St Paul I [brother: Stephen II] 757-767

Paul II [Pietro Barbo] 1464-1471

Paul III [Alessandro Farnese] 1534-1549

Paul IV [Giovanni Caraffa] 1555-1559

Paul V [Camillo Borghese] 1605-1621

St Paul VI [Giovanni Montini] 1963-1978

St. Paul I: brother to Pope Stephen II and succeeded him--the sort of thing that could happen in the premodern era. This was the era of Pepin the Frank, where the Frankish kingdom had just become the papacy's welcome bulwark against the conquests of the Lombards and the intrigues of the Byzantines, who also wished to take back control of as much of Italy as possible; at the end of the century this would lead to the crowning of Constantine as Western Emperor and the final decline of Byzantine influence, although the Lombard dukes would take longer to diminish in importance. Pope Paul I had a reputation for honor and personal sanctity which were still common in that era.

Paul II: elected in the fifteenth century recovery and Roman Renaissance period following the Avignon period and the schism and wild experimental councils that ended it. His uncle was Pope Eugene II and apparently he became a priest after his uncle's election. Paul II was a big spender on building projects (probably still needed at the time), carnivals and festivals, and was a supporter of the arts. However, he also found it necessary to reign in some of the more ardent Renaissance figures of his day and closed something called the Roman Academy for its excesses toward paganism and moral turpitude. He made efforts, building on the conciliar period at the beginning of the century, to bring Russia into communion with Rome and to combat the Turks who had just conquered Constantinople; these big ideas and initiatives were, sadly, not successful. The Ottomans continued expanding for centuries to come and Russia is still very much in schism with Rome.

Paul III: An aristocrat of the Farnese family, educated at Rome and Florence; knew Leo X from their youth in Florence. He was a cardinal from age 25 until his election as Pope at age 66, a period embracing the excesses of Popes Alexander and Julius/Julian and the beginning of Luther's disturbances. He was enormously influential between his intellect, education, wealth, time in the Sacred College, and diplomatic skill. Finally he was elected Pope in a time of turmoil, less than 20 years after Luther's 95 theses. By that point he was old and respected and past some questionable periods in his youth.

Apparently Paul saw immediately that a new general council was needed to address the outbreak of Protestantism, but his efforts to get one started were thwarted by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V's attempts to hammer out vague agreements that everyone could accept, and even more so by the power politics of the French under Francois I. He wanted the Holy Roman Empire divided and weakened, and did not care if heresy was the means to that end. In that light it is not surprising that he persecuted Protestants harshly within France itself. This became a recurring French policy and would culminate in the Thirty Years' War that devastated and practically ended the Holy Roman Empire as a united country. Pope Paul was not immune to concerns about the excessive power of the Holy Roman Emperors who had mistreated so many of his predecessors, Gregory VII in particular, but in this he may have been short-sighted; his family were traditional Guelphs who supported the Popes politically against the Emperors.

In any case Paul III did get the Council of Trent started and, like Pope John XXIII, did see its initial sessions. Against Charles V's desires, they immediately set to work on some of the key issues regarding original sin, justification, and the sacraments. Meanwhile Pope Paul had begun many reforms of the Curia and Church discipline on his own initiative that after his death were taken up by the Council. He supported many of the new religious orders springing up in this era. Many see Paul III as a Pope of towering importance for the history of the Church.

Paul IV: Born of a Neapolitan noble family, brought into the Church by his uncle Cardinal Ottavino, but very attracted by the discipline of religious life. He, too, knew Leo X and was sent on diplomatic missions in his pontificate. Cardinal Giovanni, later Paul IV, eventually became a member of the priestly order set up by St. Cajetan. Because Giovanni was Bishop of Chieti, Theate in Latin, and because he was first general of the order, they became known as Theatines--a remarkably indirect reason. Protestant brigands sacked Rome in 1527 and the Theatines suffered greatly and went away to Venice for a few years, but Paul III believed they were needed in Rome and brought them back. Paul III made the future Paul IV a cardinal and employed him in reforming the Curia and in the Inquisition in Italy, where he was very strict if not harsh. Paul IV was very old at his election as pope and quite surprised by it. Legend has it that he might have refused the election if another cardinal had not announced that Charles V would veto Cardinal Caraffa if elected; in outrage at this attempt at meddling, Caraffa accepted. The Habsburgs shut the pope out of the serious issues of the era, especially the attempts at a political settlement with Protestants and issues around the succession to the Empire and forced the pope to ally with France.

Unlike Paul III, Paul IV is not considered a successful pope. He promoted a very unworthy "cardinal-nephew" despite his own personal rigor; he was petty in awarding other family members with land taken from Spaniards due to his quarrels with the Habsburgs; he took probably very problematic measures encouraging harshness by Queen Mary in England and thwarting Cardinal Pole. He did take some actions toward re-establishing a Catholic hierarchy in the Netherlands and starting one in the Orient. He continued to encourage the Inquisition but at least had a reputation for being no respecter of persons in that regard, and he did disavow his problematic nephews after various failures.

Paul V: A relative of St. Catherine, his family was from Siena and had moved to Rome. In many ways he was a stiff canon lawyer and a bad negotiator. He got into a tremendously bitter dispute with Venice on grounds that to modern ears sound pretty bad: Venice refused to exempt clergy from civil courts. They did also forbid transfer of real property to clergy and required civil approval of new churches. Paul V put them under interdict, which they flagrantly ignored. The Jesuits, Theatines, and Capuchins left the city, and the other clergy apparently sided with the government. Much was written by learned men on either side, such as Baronius, Bellarmine, and the Venetian Paolo Sarpi--something of a quasi-Protestant and despiser of the politics of the Papal Curia. The French and Spanish governments helped broker a somewhat distasteful compromise--certainly distasteful to Paul V.

Yet Paul V was not always so intransigent. He tried to reach a rapprochement with James I in England, asking that Catholics in general not be persecuted after the Gunpowder Plot but commiserating with the monarch over the attempted assassination, but the pope was rebuffed. An interesting note: According to J. Jungmanns, The Mass of the Roman Rite, Paul V signed a decree in 1615 allowing the Mass to be celebrated in Chinese, out of respect for the antiquity and learning of ancient Chinese philosophy, recognizing it as a peer to Latin or Greek. This decree was never transmitted and acted upon, and Benedict XIV a few years later decided differently.

In administering Rome Paul V was more successful. Even though he promoted many members of his family, they in general served the administration well. He also got to celebrate many of the achievements of the sixteenth century: the new St. Peter's was finished, and he canonized or beatified saints like Charles Borromeo, Frances of Rome, Ignatius of Loyola, Francis Xavier, and Philip Neri. Sadly, his reign also saw the actual start of the Thirty Years' War.

Paul VI: Our first pope in living memory if we discount the preliminary discussion of the Piuses. Paul VI was a career Church diplomat, much like John XXIII and Pius XII. When John XXIII called the Second Vatican Council and then passed away a short time into its proceedings, Cardinal Montini was elected and took the long-disused name of Paul. He never publicly explained his choice in detail. It is widely believed that it was to hark back to the Apostle, far more than any kind of biretta-tip to a previous pope, although the legacy of Paul III and his reforms leading to the Council of Trent might be a distant secondary consideration. John XXIII had taken an even more disused name, the name of an Apostle, and Paul's legacy and its connection to Rome if anything makes it surprising that more Popes have not taken the name.

In any case, Paul's pontificate was inevitably linked to the Council. His tasks were to celebrate and spread its messages, begin the authoritative interpretation of its statements, and carry out its intentions. In the event Paul was pope long enough to complete most of the latter: the enormous revisions to the Mass and to the Breviary or Liturgy of the Hours. He also implemented changes to the structure of the Curia in Regimini ecclesiae universae, a stream of influence on the later 1983 revision of the Code of Canon Law under John Paul II. Perhaps the final major document of the postconciliar period, the new Catechism of the Catholic Church, was not completed until 1994 and bears more of the mark of John Paul.

Paul VI did not use the term "new evangelization" but made statements leading in that direction--for example, in the document Ecclesiam Suam on the Church's posture toward the modern world and in Evangelii Nuntiandi. He contributed to Catholic social teaching on the morality of economic development, especially in Populorum Progressio. In these ways he emphasized the positive developments begun during the Council. In other ways he took stands against the so-called "spirit of Vatican II" by emphasizing traditional doctrines. In Mysterium fidei he emphasized the continuing central role of the Blessed Sacrament in Catholic spirituality, and in Humanae Vitae he reiterated and put on a new, bolder, more consistently argued footing the traditions of Christian sexual morality, combating the unprecedented assault of the "Sexual Revolution" and paving the way for John Paul II to develop these ideas more fully in his pontificate.

Why Paul VII, and what would taking that name seem to imply for a 21st century pope?

• Using St. Paul as a reference point could never be inappropriate. In our contemporary situation the primary inference, an emphasis on the missionary calling of the Church, would again be foremost. Paul could also be used as a symbol of Romanness, but the political situation for that is hard to see reasserting itself any time soon.

• Obviously folk would assume a reference is being made back to Paul VI and to the Second Vatican Council. This, as even this short summary shows, would be an ambiguous reference. Is Paul VI the "liberal" Pope who fulfilled the Council's promise to rescue us from the Latin mumble Mass? Or is he the "conservative" Pope who was so out of touch as to condemn contraception?

• Paul III is a prominent enough figure that he, too, could serve as a reference point. In that case look out for a Third Vatican Council or (if Providence is truly gracious) a Fourth Council of Constantinople. The assessment of such a cardinal choosing to call out Paul III specifically (in addition to Paul the Apostle, Paul VI, and perhaps other great Pauls from Christian history) might be that the situation is parallel to the situation Paul III inherited in this way: The conciliar movement at the end of the Western Schism did not reach a stable resolution at Constance, Pisa, or Basle, but left smoldering embers that roared up as Protestantism and required the Council of Trent to address (unfortunately after enormous lasting damage was done). Similarly, the legacy of the Second Vatican Council is clearly unresolved. That is to say nothing of the millennium-old schism with the East, although this hypothetical Paul VII might or might not choose to embrace the goal of complete reunification of apostolic, sacramental Christianity--he might well decide that the Roman communion needs to heal its own wounds before launching itself more vigorously into that quest. In any case, a reference to Paul III might imply a belief in the need for another Council to settle the liturgical, administrative, and other problems still facing the Church.

Changing the numbering system to be more suggestive of a bracket. Sixtus is the third one seed, if you will.

Image: Sandro Botticelli, 1480, Pope Sixtus II

Popes names Sixtus (originally Xystus):

St Sixtus I 117 or 119 to 126 or 128 Martyr

St Sixtus II 257 to 258 Famous martyr, in the Roman Canon

St Sixtus III 432 to 440

Sixtus IV 1471 to 1484 Sistine Chapel named for him

Sixtus V 1585 to 1590 Great reformer of the Papal States and Curia

Sixtus or Xystus I: the earliest pope we have covered so far, in the very uncertain period of the second century, during the reign of Hadrian. The chronicles that look back to this time do not agree on the dates of his ministry and otherwise only record a few vague details. He is supposed to have placed the chanting of the Sanctus at its present place in the Mass, right after the Preface; he is also recorded to have been martyred, although nothing seems to be preserved about the event.

Sixtus / Xystus II: pope during the persecution of Valerian in the third century. His brief reign saw a reconciliation with St. Cyprian and churches in Africa and Asia Minor, which had been requiring heretics to be rebaptized. The persecution was stepped up in August 258 and Pope Xystus was beheaded with four deacons in a cemetery where he was celebrating Mass; two more deacons were executed the same day; the last and most famous deacon, Lawrence, survived a few days to be captured and according to legend roasted to death. Pope Sixtus to this day is mentioned in the full version of the Roman Canon of the Eucharistic Prayer.

Sixtus / Xystus III: prior to his election as pope, a correspondent with St. Augustine. Approved the acts of the Council of Ephesus and rededicated the restored basilica of St. Mary Major. This historical period included continued disputes with both Pelagians and Nestorians. Defended and maintained papal supremacy over Illyricum. Succeeded by Leo the Great.

Sixtus IV: pope of the late fifteenth century. Born of poor parents; became a Franciscan and a notable theologian. Unfortunately once pope he became a traditional nepotist and involved the Papal States in wars to put his nephews in charge of Florence and Ferrara, and wars of this nature continued to absorb papal attention through the beginning of the Reformation. He opposed and annulled the decrees of the Council of Constance and was successful in turning the Church away from conciliarism. He was a great builder and is said to have made Rome much more livable, helping continue its recovery from the Avignon period of the papacy. He reorganized and essentially refounded the Vatican Library and most famously built the Sistine Chapel.

Sixtus V: also of poor birth and Dalmatian ancestry, whose family had fled from Turkish expansion; supposedly a swineherd as a boy. Also became a Franciscan and rose to prominence in that order, also for a time appointed to the Inquisition in Venice. Accompanied the future Gregory XIII to Spain to investigate claims that the Archbishop of Toledo was a heretic, and the two did not get along. During Gregory XIII's long reign he was sidelined. Similarly to his time as an inquisitor, he proved to be an effective but severe and even brutal ruler of the Papal States. He had perhaps ten thousand to thirty thousand brigands to deal with and nearly exterminated them. He put the papal finances in order and built many useful and beautiful buildings, but seems to have taxed the economy into a stupor. Of particular significance, he created fifteen Congregations to organize the cardinals and created much of the current structure of the Curia. He caused editions of the Septuagint and the Vulgate to be printed, although his edition of the Vulgate is not considered to be of high quality, and even at the time was recalled and corrected in 1592 due to many errors already recognized. He was supposedly on the point of forcing the Jesuits to change their name from the "Society of Jesus" and change some of the rules of the order when he died. For a change he was actually notably non-nepotistic.

Why Sixtus VI: A cardinal would take this name in order to revive the memory of Sixtus II (and I), recognizing that the Church in so many parts of the world faces persecution on a massive scale. That by itself might be enough. The early modern era Popes Sixtus, especially Sixtus V, might contribute to the idea especially if 1) the cardinal is a Franciscan and 2) he plans to address the Vatican finances and the organization of the Curia at large.

Paul followed through on his promise to read Fathers and Sons by Turgenev, Paradise Lost, and Crime and Punishment to discuss with a former student. Some gleanings from his particular corner of the asylum.

Life keeps happening.

Pope Sixtus is the next name on the docket and I will get it out by July. Another fascinating history if not as long as Leo or Gregory.

I have promised a former student to read along with her: Crime and Punishment by Dostoevsky, Fathers and Sons by Turgenev, and Paradise Lost by you know who. So I will attempt to drop a few thoughts about that sometime over the course of June.

Another topic: Pope Leo's first encyclical. After reading the first ten paragraphs, I am very struck by his distributist (that word is clearly lurking in the background) interpretation of Nehemiah, the story he presents as paradigmatic for human economic effort arranged in a way consistent with human nature and our relationship with God. Surely Bill and I can find some grist to grind there when I get him corralled and back at a microphone.

The talk I actually gave at the retreat...I ended up not even giving the Man of God talk.

Artwork: The Ghent Altarpiece, 15th century

I would have liked to get an episode of the bracket out during the actual NCAA tournament, but I was asked to give two talks at a confirmation retreat, so I'm giving those to you as bonus episodes.

Stay tuned later in April for an episode featuring the name Sixtus...only five of them but quite the history.

--Paul

Image credit for Christ, the Man of Sorrows: https://www.wga.hu/html/c/ceccarel/sorrows.html

SHOW NOTES FOR “A CALENDAR OF GREGORIES”

1. The bracket is back! Paul’s application of March Madness oddsmaking to the name and fame of popes throughout history returns in this episode. Co-hosts Paul and Bill, after completing a tour of popes called Leo, now look at Pope Gregory, a popular name that appeared in sixteen iterations. This makes for an informative roller coaster ride through the past.

2. This chain started out with a man actually born as Gregory. He chose to be Pope Gregory I and ruled in the Vatican in the years 590-604, but the Catholic Church has chosen to call him Gregory the Great. He did much to shape the Church of the Dark Ages and Medieval times. He was a great administrator, even helping to “orchestrate” the development of Gregorian Chant. He is a canonized saint.

3. Gregory II reigned in 715-731. He was one of the popes dealing with warring European factions and with the rise of Islam. He is a canonized saint.

4. Gregory III, whose term was 731-741, addressed issues such as iconoclasm, a penchant among some European Catholic factions as well as in Islam.

5. Paul goes on to tell tales of Gregory IV (827-844) and of Gregory V (996-999), who was the first German pope, and of Gregory VI (1045-1046). This simoniac resigned a year before his death.

6. Gregory VII (1073-1085) was born Hildebrand of Sovana. This great reformer is a canonized saint. Gregory VIII ruled for two months in 1187.

7. Gregory IX (1227-1241) was followed by Gregory X (1271-1276) and by Gregory XI (1370-1378), who was the last French pope and the last pope to reign in Avignon as the holy see.

8. Gregory XII (1406-1415) He was the last of the Roman line during the Western Schism (1378–1417), when the papacy was contested by antipopes in Avignon (France) and in Pisa (Italy).

9. Gregory XIII (1572-1585) promulgated the Gregorian Calendar.

10. Gregory XIV had a short tenure in 1590-1591. Then came Gregory XV (1621-1623).

11. Gregory XVI (1831-1846) presided over debates on how to handle the future of the papal states, and he supported traditional monarchies in Europe, says Britannica. He was the last pope named Gregory.

12. The classic papal name Gregory provides a throughline for viewing immense change between the secular and the sacred, spanning conflict and continuity in the first and second millennia of the Common Era. The calendar changed, but the Church is still here.

Photo: Unidentified, San Gregorio Magno, 18th century, carved and painted wood, 27 ¹⁄₂ x 9 ⁵⁄₈ x 9 ¹⁄₄ in. (69.8 x 24.5 x 23.6 cm.), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Teodoro Vidal Collection, 1996.91.58A-B

Leo - Episode P2

Artwork: by Francesco Solimena - Web Gallery of Art: Public Domain, Wikimedia Commons

1. “That’s So Second Millennium” retains its online longevity, posting this 149^th episode. We invite listeners to keep returning with us to our past-present-future perspectives on the world’s third millennium (Anno Domini or Common Era). Former college professor Dr. Paul Giesting (call him Paul) resumes and expands his discussion of the “pope name bracket” he created, inspired partly by the 2025 basketball season but well-informed by the Church’s remarkable past.

2. In this podcast’s new season of episodes, which began with Papal Names Bracket—Part 1, we continue our review of popes’ names in context, including the popularity of certain names. It’s a handy launch pad for a quick and insightful tour of history.

3. See below the database Paul established as a guide to our sweeping review of the au courant name “Leo.” Like the “TSSM” podcast, it keeps popping up!

4. (Paul credits assistance from The Catholic Encyclopedia, still authoritative though first published in 1914 and preserved and presented at the New Advent website. As a valuable resource, it too keeps popping up.)

5. Pope St. Leo I "The Great" 440-461 - of the Tome and the pacification of Attila the Hun

Pope St. Leo II 682-3

Pope St. Leo III 795-816 - who crowned Charlemagne in 800

Pope St. Leo IV 847-853

Pope Leo V 903?

Pope Leo VI 928-9

Pope Leo VII 936-9

Pope Leo VIII 964-5

Pope Leo IX (Bruno) 1049-54 - early reformer in an era of simony and clerical incontinence

Pope Leo X (Giovanni de Medici) 1513-1521 - Renaissance pope at the time of Luther

Pope Leo XI (Alessandro de Medici) 1605

Pope Leo XII (Annibale della Genga) 1823-1829

Pope Leo XIII (Gioacchino Pecci) 1878-1903 - Author of Rerum Novarum

6. Paul inserts this personal comment about his presentation, recorded Jan. 17, 2026, before the historical tour begins: Please pardon the awkward insertion of "from Irenaeus of" [Lyon] into the episode toward the end...I had originally, mistakenly, called him Ignatius...and a few oddly timed pauses where I took the opportunity to blank out some even more excessive than usual "uhs". I miss podcasting and being in the classroom to keep me sharper on my speaking skills.

7. Note that Pope Leo XIII and our present-day Pope Leo XIV are scholars of the Catholic Church’s Canon Law. You can read the entire tome here. Now that’s transparency!

8. Bill Schmitt concludes the episode with his co-host contributions, kindly appended to the podcast by producer Paul. Bill’s dual focus is the context of Pope Leo XIII’s huge contributions and their relevance to these days of Leo XIV. Leave it to Bill to segue from profound Church history to the subject of Greenland.

9. You can read Bill’s ongoing “Phronesis in Pieces” commentaries—on the intersection of Catholic values, public affairs, and trends in communications—at billschmitt.substack.com and at OnWord.net.

1. Dr. Paul Giesting and Bill Schmitt welcome listeners back for new episodes of our “legacy” podcast, “That’s So Second Millennium.” See below for biographies. Check out our archived episodes: That's So Second Millennium

2. Here’s a chronological list of popes. For context in this episode, start with Pope Leo XIII (#256) and look through the 20^th century for Popes Pius X, XI, and XII. (Please forgive a couple of small historical and mathematical mistakes--at one point Paul says something amounting to 5+7 make 11 or 4+7 make 12.)

3. What’s in a name? Paul has developed a sports-inspired bracket for papal names and their likelihood, with 64 possibilities. We'll digitize it and post it in connection with the next episode.

4. Papal tiara logo borrowed from The Mad Monarchist.

5. Pope Leo XIV conforms with Paul’s bracket prediction of the “top seed”: With the passing of Pope Francis, Leo was the most likely name to be chosen.

6. Scholars have called the 1660-1836 period as “the long 18^th century” in English literature. They point to a “long 19^th century” between 1750 and 1914.

7. Here’s one take on why Cardinal Robert Prevost chose Leo as his papal name. Leo is now the fourth-most common papal name in history along with Clement. The only more popular names are John, Benedict, and Gregory.

8. Would you like to read the book—Their Name is Pius—that Paul read in his youth? Amazon says it doesn’t come cheap.

9. You can also read Eamon Duffy’s The Stripping of the Altars.

10. Pope Leo XIV has called for a new Rerum Novarum, according to the Aleteia news site.

11. Here’s the bio of St. Francis Xavier, missionary and one of the original seven Jesuits.

12. Yes, there was a Pope Lando, reigning in the years 913-914.

13. Pope Julius I, a canonized saint, reigned in 337-352.

Updated bio of Bill Schmitt: Bill Schmitt is a journalist, educator, and marketing communications specialist who has been an adjunct professor of English and media at several schools, most recently Holy Cross College in Notre Dame, IN. He served on the communications staff of the University of Notre Dame from 2003 to 2017, managing many projects and joining in a wide range of multimedia, interdisciplinary collaborations. Since then, his freelance work has included feature-writing, editing, podcasting, and blogging, with much of his work centered on the Catholic faith. Bill holds a BA from Fordham University and an MPA from the Princeton School of Public and International Affairs. Find his work at billschmitt.substack.com, OnWord.net, and billschmitt-onword on Linked-In.

Paul felt it was important to put Daniel's book title in the episode title, but Bill's suggested title is too good not to place somewhere:

TSSM: NEW BOOK EXPLORES MEANING IN MOTION

1. In this new episode of the “That’s So Second Millennium” podcast, your host Paul Giesting, assistant professor of mathematics and sciences at Wyoming Catholic College, interviews his faculty colleague, Dr. Daniel Shields, assistant professor of philosophy. Shields’s book, Nature and Nature’s God: A Philosophical and Scientific Defense of Aquinas’s Unmoved Mover Argument, has just been released by Catholic University of America Press and is available for purchase here.
2. This discussion is tailor-made for these two Catholic scholars who bring broad scientific and philosophical knowledge, plus fervor for conversations at the intersection of multiple disciplines, to their research and teaching. It is also tailor-made for the “TSSM” podcast, which seizes this golden opportunity for a curtain-call while remaining on official hiatus. The podcast generated about 150 episodes between 2018 and 2022, with co-host Bill Schmitt. They focused on the intersection, incorporating everyday life and the pursuit of virtuous wisdom—past, present, and future.
3. Shields makes reference to Dr. Robert C. Koons, professor of philosophy at the University of Texas at Austin. Koons wrote a review of Nature and Nature’s God, praising its integration of natural philosophy and metaphysics. The book combines scientific knowledge with insights into the writing of St. Thomas Aquinas.
4. Shields and Giesting go into depth on Aquinas’s proofs for the existence of God, especially his favored “first way”—arguing our cosmos filled with motion needs an “unmoved mover” at its origin (and beyond). The discussion elaborates on the idea that God keeps everything in motion.
5. The book, Shields explains, goes on to apply natural philosophy and metaphysics to such subjects as statistical mechanics, contemporary cosmology, and even biology.
6. Through it all, Shields and Giesting make mention of many historical figures, from Aristotle to Copernicus to Newton to Maimonidesto Helmholtz. Present-day references include Brother Guy Consolmagno, SJ, known as the Pope’s Astronomer, and quantum physics scholar Sean Carroll.